Relationship between breast size and size of tips

While conducting some research for my forthcoming trade book tentatively titled The Consuming Instinct: What Juicy Burgers, Ferraris, Pornography, and Gift Giving Reveal About Human Nature (Prometheus Books, 2011), I came across a study authored by Nicolas Guéguen on the likelihood of a female hitchhiker being picked up, by either a male or female driver, as a function of her breast size. On a related note, some of you might recall my recent post on the positive correlation between waitresses' tips and their breast size.

 
In visiting Nicolas Guéguen's website, I could not help but notice that he possesses a talent for conducting naturalistic experiments about issues that many people have wondered about and yet few (if any) have tested. Recall my earlier post on the likelihood of a woman being approached at a bar as a function of whether she is wearing cosmetics (one of Guéguen's other papers).
 
Returning to the current paper, Guéguen created one of three naturalistic experimental conditions (corresponding to three breast sizes) using an average looking female confederate: (1) her actual breast size, which was an A cup (i.e., smaller than the French average); (2) a B cup (the average size in France); (3) a C cup (greater than the average). The breast "augmentations" were performed via the addition of a latex implant.


 
The female confederate then stood at the side of a road and actually hitch hiked (i.e., put out her thumb as cars whizzed by). Two observers coded the number of male and female drivers that drove by along with the number of times that a given driver stopped to pick up the confederate. For obvious security reasons, once a driver stopped, this was counted as an instance of having picked up the hitchhiker. In other words, the confederate did not actually get into any cars. A male observer also hid close by to ensure against any possible threats to the confederate's security.
                                      Cup Size A          Cup Size B          Cup Size C

Male drivers (n = 774)       40/268                 46/256                  60/250 

                                        (14.92%)              (17.79%)               (24.00%)

Female drivers (n = 426)  12/132                 11/144                   14/150 


                                         (9.09%)                (7.64%)                 (9.33%)

Statistically speaking, only men's behaviors were affected by the hitchhiker's breast size (p < .03). The frequency of stopping in the cup C condition was marginally greater than that of cup B (p = 0.09) and significantly greater than that of cup A (p < .01). The difference between cups A and B was not significant.
 

The bottom line: If a woman has large breasts, men are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior (in this case offering her a ride). I suppose that we could have all predicted this fact albeit it is fun to see it tested in a scientific manner. Finally, I am only the messenger so direct your accusations of patriarchal oppression to Dr. Guéguen!


My fellow PT blogger Christopher Ryan recently put up a post explaining the allure of breasts. As he correctly explained, there are several evolutionary explanations for men's visual intoxication with breasts. In today's post, I'd like to discuss a consequence of this attraction within the service industry.
 
Michael Lynn is a professor of consumer behavior and marketing at the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration, and perhaps the most eminent researcher on tipping behavior. He has explored numerous variables that affect the size of tips left by patrons. 

In a recent study published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior, Professor Lynn found a positive correlation between the breast size of waitresses (n = 432) and the size of their tips (both were self-reported measures). He did not split the tipping data by sex of the patrons. One might expect that the "breast effect" might enhance tips for male patrons whereas female patrons might "punish" shapely waitresses (intra-sexual rivalry). 
 
The existing data did not allow for a more refined set of analyses to test such possibilities. Also, Lynn notes that he might have expected a quadratic relationship between breast size and size of tips, namely, breasts that are too small or too big would result in lower tips than medium sized breasts. However, his data suggests that bigger is always better...at least when it comes to tipping behavior!

tying a sari

A friend of mine, Siddartha Banerjee has created his 2nd iPhone app (MeterDown being the first), called the Sari App. So, that's one more to the 400,000+ apps on the iPhone platform, you say? Yes, its a lot more than that.

Apps like these go a long way in strengthening the lure of the iOS platform both for end-users and developers. While there are several jokes about 'There's an App for that' (which Apple has trade marked by the way!) the sheer breadth and width of apps – from the useful to the bizarre – available on the iOS platform makes it difficult for competition to match. From Snow Reports to Children's stories to Bird Watching, there is an app for that.

The Sari App fits in well with most of the successful utility apps – it is global in terms of appeal, has repeat value and can be a 'must-hav-app' for many. Personally speaking,  the fact that such apps go through the Apple approval system and free of malware is a hug plus too.

Another interesting aspect of the app is that its been created by a true Apple evangelist. The developer was my colleague – working as copywriter in an ad agency many years ago. His passion for all things Apple didn't just stop at buying and recommending Apple products – but training (self-taught, I believe) to become an iPhone Developer. That's amazing. Speaks volumes about the passion brand Apple evokes, not just among geeks.

The Apple-iOS-Developer-Consumer chain is made stronger with the success of such apps.

sportswoman lost her leg pushed out of a moving train

A 23-year-old national-level sportswoman lost her leg when she was pushed out of a moving train near Bareilly by three men who attempted to rob her.
Sonu Sinha, a national-level football and volleyball player, was pushed from the Padmavat Express on Bareilly railway stations while she was travelling to Delhi to appear in an examination, police said.
As she fell on the track, she was hit by another train moving on a parallel track. Her left leg below the knee was crushed.
A profusely bleeding Sonu was rushed to the district hospital here. "When she was brought here, she was in a very serious condition. Her left leg was badly damaged and her right leg had injuries. She had also suffered some head injuries. Our entire team has been treating her. Her left leg has been amputated. Her general condition is fine," a doctor treating her said.
With her legs and head in bandages, Sonu said the robbers tried to pull her gold chain. "I resisted and they pushed me out of the train. I could not move. I remember seeing a train coming towards me. I tried getting up. By then, the train had run over my leg. I don''t remember anything after that," she said.
Sports minister Ajay Maken said in Delhi that he will seek details in this matter and help Sonu. "We will ask the Railways to probe the matter and nab the culprits. We will extend the best medical treatment to the player," he said.
A fight broke out in the compartment. "Sonu claims one of the men reached for her neck. She thought it might be an attempt at chain-sntatching. There was a struggle. Whether she was pushed out or her fall was accidental, only the investigation will tell," Railway official A K Jain said.
She boarded the train from Lucknow and was travelling in the general compartment, they added.
Police have registered a case of attempt to murder. None of her attackers have been traced.

happy family is having two daughters

The key to a happy family is having two daughters, according to a new study. Researchers concluded that two girls are unlikely to fight, will play nicely together, rarely annoy their parents and tend not to wind each other up. Scientists also claimed that they also make little noise, seldom ignore each other and are more likely to confide in their mother or father.

Researchers questioned thousands of mothers and fathers of under-16s to come up with the recipe for a harmonious family life.

Those with two girls were most likely to say their children were easy to reason with, helped around the house and generally got on well with each other.
After two girls, the second most appealing combination of children was one girl and one boy, with 86% of parents saying their little boy and little girl were genuine friends.
The third most favourable combination was two boys, with parents saying their sons pay each other lots of attention and are close friends — but are less likely to confide in their mum or dad as they grow up.

pakistani boys and girls / pakistan girls

 
Surprising as it may sound but the girls have outnumbered boys in Pakistan. Despite the socio cultural taboos associated with girl child like dowry, sexual abuse, weaker sex etc, the girl child were not aborted in certain areas of Pakistan like Southern Punjab and Khyber Pakhtonkhawa.


Contrastingly, the urbanised areas, including major cities of Pakistan, sex selective abortions are common. Pakistan's former federal minister of human rights, Ansar Burney told TOI (via phone from Karachi) that girls were in immense demand in Pakistan due to the common practice of three to four marriages in almost every fourth family. "The girl carries a price tag in Southern Punjab and Khyber Pakhtonawa areas," he said, while claiming that in areas like Swat they were sold by their weight.

There were more than 1200 girls for every 1000 boys in Pakistan, he added, since the Mullahs dictate against sex determination or abortions. "But sadly, despite this, many of these girls don't have a promising future as most of their parents discard, abandoned or sell them due to poverty" said he. Illiteracy was rampant in these areas so men preferred to buy girls and now they were also being used as suicide bombers, he added. "Yes there is discrimination with female child in Pakistan due to our mindset," candidly admitted Faraz Abbas, a government official with Evacuee Trust Property Board while talking to TOI (via phone from Lahore) on Sunday.


He said in urban areas most of the parents hold the mindset that with girls comes the liability of dowry, while the male child was educated and cared for. Former president of Pakistan Sikh Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Bishan Singh agreed that not only the Muslims but Hindu's and Sikh's also prefer male child. However, he said with the changing social setup many parents were opening up to the idea of accepting the girl child.

USC rooftop sex

An inquiry has been launched after a couple were caught apparently having sex on the rooftop of a USC building - allegedly in front of hundreds of people.

Officials at the university were outraged as photographs of the couple - many of which were too graphic to be shown here - quickly went viral.
The images apparently show the man, who is a student at the university, and a woman cavorting in a variety of sexual positions on top of the school's 12-storey Waite Phillips Hall in Los Angeles on Saturday.
The woman has not been publicly identified but is not believed to be a student at the university, according to officials.

The building is the home of the university's School of Education, and is the second tallest on campus.

Their rendezvous took place in broad daylight - and, according to reports, as a 'philanthropy event' attended by 'hundreds' of other students took place in the quad below.
Instead of enjoying each other's company in the centre of the roof, where they arguably may not have been seen, the couple appear to have chosen to stay near the edge, ensuring they were in plain view.


Reports described their liaison as being of 'prolonged duration'.
The couple have not yet been publicly identified but USC's Kappa Sigma branch has admitted that the man in the photographs is a fraternity member.
He has been suspended 'for conduct unbecoming of a Kappa Sigma and a gentleman', according to the school newspaper the Daily Trojan.
The fraternity's president, Zach Timm, was quoted as saying: 'While the actions that were taken did involve a member of our chapter we, in no way, support this kind of behaviour, nor do we promote any such actions.'
He said that inquiries have been launched.

The identity of the woman remains a mystery. The Daily Trojan reported the photographs linked her to USC's Delta Gamma sorority because the philanthrophy event being held in the quad below.
However the sorority has denied the link, with a spokesman quoted as saying: 'There is absolutely no relationship between these circumstances and our women or our event, Anchor Splash, which benefits sight prevention and the visually impaired.'

A university official told the MailOnline that the woman is not believed to be a student at USC.
Meanwhile a top official at the board for fraternities at the California university has expressed his outrage.

The Daily Trojan quoted USC Interfraternity Council President Pat Lauer as saying he was 'appalled by the actions associated with the individuals in the pictures, and will work tirelessly to reverse the negative stereotypes such an action has perpetuated.

A spokesman for the council told the MailOnline: 'As an Interfraternity Council, we are appalled by the actions of the students involved in the incident, and we want to make it clear that we in no way condone the acts that occurred.'It's also important to note that this action was taken by one solitary member of a fraternity at USC, not the Greek community as a whole, which accomplishes great things on a daily basis at USC.In turn, we are doing everything we can to continue to reverse untrue stereotypes the action has created.'

Leaders of the Interfraternity Council and the Panhellenic Council are set to meet this week with the presidents of all campus sororities and fraternities to discuss a course of action.
The student in question met with USC's student judicial affairs and community standards (SJACS) Monday about the issue, the MailOnline understands.

The university's decision as far as course of action has not yet been reached.
U.S. blog Gawker.com quoted campus gossip claiming that the man in the photographs had sent a sexist 'C***sman' email earlier in the month in which he described women as 'objects' and 'targets'.
It is not clear who took the photographs. LATaco claimed they were taken by an 'anonymous' person, but the Daily Trojan claimed the images had been posted to Facebook.
The images appear to have been taken by someone who was at eye level with the couple.
Judging by a campus map, the most likely place the photographer could have been was at the top of the 167ft Von KleinSmid Center Tower, across the Bogardius Courtyard from Waite Phillips Hall.

youngsters are now dying globally

In a complete reversal of a 50-year trend, more youngsters are now dying globally than toddlers.

In a first-of-its-kind study — published in the British medical journal The Lancet on Tuesday — it quantifies the patterns of death in children over five years old from 50 countries during the second half of the 20th century. It has been found that death rates in young people (15-24 years) are now higher than children (1-4 years) across most high and low-income countries. Death rates in young men (15-24 years) are two to three times higher than boys (1-4 years).

The majority of deaths in young people are due to injury, limiting improvements in mortality in this age-group over the past 50 years to just half that of children.

Russell Viner from UCL Institute of Child Health, London, and his colleagues said, "A strong international focus on reducing mortality in children below five years has not been matched by a similar response in older groups even though more than two-fifths of the world's population is in the 5-24 year age group."

The findings showed that in the 1950s, mortality in the 1-4 age-group greatly exceeded in all the regions studied. Death rates in children, aged 1-9, declined by 80-93% due to a drop in mortality from infectious diseases in 2004.

Decrease in death in young people, aged 15-24 years, was only about half of that in children. This is largely because of increase in injury-related deaths, particularly, of young men. By the start of the 21st century, injuries were responsible for 70-75% of all deaths in young men aged 10-24 years.


The research also showed that violence and suicide have become key causes of death in young people, responsible for a quarter to a third of deaths in young men aged 10-24 years.

The authors pointed out, "The high injury burden in young people means that they are particularly affected by the persistent low global investment in non-communicable diseases and injury relative to global disease burden."


They concluded, "Future global health targets should include the causes of death in people aged 10-24 years."

Goa does not have its own forensic laboratory

On an average, one foreign tourist died per week over the last three years in Goa. Of the 161 deaths, the cause of death in 53 cases is not known as the histopathology examination and chemical analysis report of the victim's viscera has not yet been received.

While 25 foreigners drowned, 16 of them died following motor vehicle accidents and 15 due to natural cause while holidaying in the state. However, a majority of them have died due to drug overdose, it is alleged. Japanese tourist Kiego Yshiki is suspected to have died due to injection of plant origin narcotic substance in 2008. This was revealed on Thursday by home minister Ravi Naik in a written reply to a question by opposition leader Manohar Parrikar regarding deaths of foreigners in the state.

The delay in verifying the cause of death is mainly because Goa does not have its own forensic laboratory and is dependent on the central forensic sciences laboratories in Hyderabad and Mumbai and now Surat for analysis.

Of the 53 cases in which viscera analysis reports are pending, 29 are of Britons, 12 of Russians, 3 of Germans, besides persons of other nationalities.

Naik's written reply, however, states that the number of foreigners' deaths linked to drugs, directly or indirectly, in the last three years as only one, that too in 2008.


Apparently, doubting the veracity of that figure, Parrikar said that in almost 60% of the foreigners' deaths, their viscera has been sent for chemical analysis because they are suspected to have died from drug overdose or related complications.

Seeking to highlight the gravity of the drugs problem in Goa, Parrikar urged the home minister to address the issue seriously.

Naik replied saying, "We will seriously look into the issue." According to statistics furnished by Naik, 42 foreigners died in Goa in 2008, 65 in 2009 and 54 in 2010. In all three years, the highest number of foreigners died in Calangute, which recorded 45 deaths.


Anjuna came second with 32 deaths. Some other places where foreigners died are Pernem (19), Colva (18) and Canacona (17).

British tourists lead the list with 62 of them dying in the state from 2008 to 2010, followed by 27 Russians, 16 Nepalis and 10 Germans. The others are from various other countries. Of the 161 tourists who died in the state in the last three years, 126 are male and 35 female.

sex as one of the grounds for seeking divorce

A husband, who cited denial of sex as one of the grounds for seeking divorce, has been granted separation by the Delhi High Court.

Justice Kailash Gambhir took note of the fact that the wife left the husband in 2005 and "did not return to fulfill any of her matrimonial obligations" while allowing a decree for separation filed by the husband Rampal (name changed).


"Had there been any intention of the wife to resume cohabitation with the husband then at least she would have come forward to contest the divorce petition... her conduct gives sufficient grounds to construe the necessary intention on her part to bring cohabitation permanently to an end," Justice Gambhir observed in his order.

Rampal, through his lawyer Prabhjit Jauhar, had appealed against the decision of a lower court to decline a divorce decree to him, despite his claim that refusal of sex by his wife amounted to mental cruelty.

In his plea to HC, the husband narrated how marriage between the couple was solemnized in 1990 but no child was born out of the wedlock. He alleged that his wife was cruel to him from the very beginning and didn't fulfill her matrimonial obligations by refusing to have sex with him. Moreover, he pointed out in his plea that his wife deserted him in 2005 and never returned. This made Rampal seek divorce on the grounds of cruelty and desertion, which was however dismissed by the lower court.

It was also brought to the attention of the HC that the feuding couple had initially agreed to seek divorce by mutual consent, which was duly signed by the wife but then she refused to appear before the court to pursue the proceedings. Later, in a similar manner the wife also ignored divorce proceedings in HC, choosing not to state her version of events.

boyfriend problems / boyfriend in her hostel room during night.

A BTech final year girl student at MMM Engineering College, Gorakhpur, was rusticated by the college administration on Tuesday for keeping her boyfriend in her hostel room during night. The boy is a student of IIT-Delhi.

The college has also asked IIT-Delhi to initiate action against the boy.

According to reports, the girl was residing at Saraswati Mahila Hostel of the MMM Engineering College along with her roommate.

On March 7 when her roommate was not present in the hostel, the girl brought her boyfriend during the night in girl's dress. Next morning, the boy left the room in the same dress.

Several girl students of the hostel made complaints to the warden about the girl's act.

The matter was reported to the college principal who set up a panel to probe into the incident.


The panel found truth in the allegation and recommended for rustication of the girl from the college.

It is said that the girl herself had confessed to have brought her boyfriend to the hostel room.

She also disclosed the name of her boyfriend and his whereabouts.

It is said that both belong to Agra district and know each other for quite a long time. They are academically brilliant and the girl was also selected by a company for job during the campus recruitment.

After this incident, the college administration has tightened the security in the girls' hostels.

anticipation and processing of pain/depression and the brain

The long-running battle of the sexes over who feels the most pain has been won.
Sophisticated brain scans show that women have more intense responses to pain than men.

The reaction from the stronger sex is concentrated in parts of the brain involved in pain avoidance, according to new research.

A study using MRI brain scanners found women process pain in the brain differently to men.
Doctors were investigating gender differences in how the sexes respond to the pain of chronic conditions such as Irritable Bowel Syndrome - which affects more women than men.
But the findings also shed light on the age-old debate about the sensitivity of the sexes.


A research team from London and Japan led by Professor Qasim Aziz, of the Wingate Institute for Neurogastroenterology, Queen Mary University of London, studied brain activity and reactions of 16 men and 16 women in the anticipation and processing of pain.
The study involved healthy volunteers who were told that a tiny balloon would be expanded in the gullet, before the procedure lasting a second.
During the period leading up to it, women had less activity in areas that process fear and more activity in areas involved in preparing and planning movements to avoid the impending pain.

In men, fear was predominant when they were expecting to feel pain.

During the painful event the opposite reaction was seen among men who were more involved with pain avoidance.
In contrast, women showed greater activity in areas involved in processing emotions and feeling the pain.
Findings from the scans will be released today at the British Society of Gastroenterology's annual meeting in Birmingham.
Prof Aziz said 'The fact that during pain our female subjects showed more activation of the emotion processing areas in the brain could suggest a mechanism whereby females may attribute more emotional importance to painful stimuli which may influence how they perceive, report and respond to pain in comparison to males.
'Further research is now required to assess the clinical importance of these findings and to determine if brain imaging studies can help to guide therapy.'
About one in five people suffer gastrointestinal disorders such as dyspepsia and IBS, which affects three times as many women as men.
Symptoms such as pain, flatulence, bloating and constipation or diarrhoea are chronic.
Antidepressant and painkilling drugs are often used but often poorly control the symptoms.
Professor Jon Rhodes, president of the British Society of Gastroenterology said 'This is a fascinating study that uses the latest non-invasive technology to assess how the brain works.
'It gives new insight into the mechanisms that underlie functional abdominal pain due to conditions such as irritable bowel that cause great nuisance and distress to so many people.
'There is a good chance that it will lead to development of new treatment strategies.'

healthy eating diets / eat healthy food

980: Average number of calories consumed during a traditional Thanksgiving meal, including turkey, stuffing, sweet potatoes, and cranberry sauce & dessert. 5: Average number of pounds Americans believe they are likely to gain between Thanksgiving and New Year's Day. 1: Ranking of weight loss among the most popular New Year's resolutions. 10: Diameter in inches of a typical restaurant plate 20 years ago. 12: Diameter in inches of a typical restaurant plate today. 44: Percentage of women who are on a diet at any given time. 29: Percentage of men who are on a diet at any given time. 35: Percentage decrease in the number of false weight-loss claims in television, radio, and print advertisements from 2001 to 2004. 15: Number of months in prison a man was sentenced to after he claimed the doughnuts he was selling contained 135 calories instead of the actual 530 calories. 16: Marylin Monroe's dress size in the 1950s (about the equivalent of a size 12 dress today.) 31: Percentage of Americans who were trying to lose weight in 1951. 6: Catherine Zeta-Jone's dress size. 58: Percentage of American's who were trying to lose weight in 2002. $6 billion: Amount American's spent on fast food in 1970. $110 billion: Amount Americans spent on fast food in 2000. 30: Number of pounds Renee Zellweger gained for her role in Bridget Jones' Diary. $3.2 million: The bonus Renee Zellweger reportedly received, on top of her $11 million paycheck, to gain 30 pounds for Bridget Jones' Diary: The Edge of Reason. 12,500: Number of Lindsay Lohan fans who have signed a petition urging the star to gain weight. 15: Average number of pounds a soda drinker can lose in a year by cutting out one can every day. 23: Percentage of American adults who consume five servings of fruits and vegetables a day. 19.8: Percentage of American adults who think they are obese. 30.5: Percentage of American adults who actually fit the medical definition of obesity

latest technology provides cosmetics advice

Every woman's dream is to have her own personal make-up artist. That dream could soon be a reality with a computer that scans your face and suggests the perfect personalised make-up combination.

The technology, showcased at CeBIT, the world's biggest high-tech fair, takes a 3D image of your face and measures your complexion, shadows and lines.

Specially designed computer software then matches your face to 60 pre-programmed models and advises how much make-up should be applied to which parts of your face based on professional make-overs conducted on the models.

The computer can also tell you if your tried-and-tested make-up combinations are actually right for your face, explained Kristina Scherbaum, who developed the programme at the prestigious Max Planck Institute.

"We also take into consideration certain personal facial characteristics, like freckles or moles. Furthermore, we can determine whether or not already existing make-up on a woman suits her face," she added.

The software, currently only available for women, is at the research stage at the moment but could easily be adapted for commercial use, said Himangsho Saikia, who designed the interface system.

"Professional make-up is expensive but with this, you could turn on your computer in the morning, use a web-cam and have your make-up done for you," he said.

The system can also be modified to provide cosmetics advice in different situations, such as jazzy make-up for an evening party or more sober for work.

CeBIT is showcasing the latest technology and gadgets from some 4,200 exhibitors and hopes to attract around 350,000 visitors.

women like funny guys

  We all know that women like funny guys  but empirical evidence for this phenomenon has been sorely lacking. Fortunately, in a recent study in the journal Psychological Reports, a French scientist took up the challenge of testing whether humor helps men pick up women.

In the study, "Men's sense of humor and women's responses to courtship solicitations: an experimental field study", the author (who you might remember from such classic studies as "Women's bust size and men's courtship solicitation" and "Bust size and hitchhiking: a field study" set out to test whether "producing humor might function as a fitness indicator associated with greater desirability during dating selection."
For the experiment, the researcher recruited several young "male confederates" (no, not the Southern kind) to help out. The guys sat in a bar near a woman, and one of them was instructed to tell (or, in the control condition, not tell) three jokes to his companions.
The two companions were instructed to respond with phrases like "That's hilarious!" and "You always know the good ones!". The companions then left, and the joker asked the woman (who had overheard the whole charade) for her phone number. Finally, the woman was "debriefed" and asked to take a short survey to rate the guy on his attractiveness, intelligence, and sense of humor.
The result of these shenanigans? "The previous expression of humor was associated with greater compliance with the male confederate's request and with a higher positive evaluation." In other words, the guy who told jokes was rated as funnier and more attractive by the women, thus snagging him more phone numbers.
So basically, the author thinks women like funny guys because it shows their intelligence, but men choose women for other reasons—perhaps bust size?

one negative thought about their bodies

Almost every woman has felt insecure about her body at some stage. But according to a new survey, it happens much more than you'd imagine.
It revealed that a staggering 97 per cent of women have at least one negative thought about their bodies every day.
The poll of 300 women commissioned by Glamour magazine, found some have over 100 negative or anxious thoughts about their body shape, though on average there were 13 - almost one for every waking hour.

Psychologist Ann Kearney-Cooke, who helped design the survey, said of the results: 'That is a lot, yet I'm not totally surprised.

'It's become such an accepted norm to put yourself down that if someone says she likes her body, she's the odd woman out.'

'I was in a group discussion recently, and when one woman said, "I actually feel OK about the way I look," another woman scrunched up her face and said, "I have never in my whole life heard anyone say that - and I'm not sure I even believe you." 

That's how pervasive this negative body talk is. It's actually more acceptable to insult your body than to praise it.

'Friends getting together and tearing themselves down is such a common thing that it's hard to avoid.'
She added that cultural beauty ideals set by magazines and celebrities influence our opinions of ourselves - but habit has also made the mental habit a norm.

'Neuroscience has shown that whatever you focus on shapes your brain. If you're constantly thinking negative thoughts about your body, that neural pathway becomes stronger—and those thoughts become habitual,' Kearney-Cooke added.
'Imagine a concert pianist. Her brain would have stronger neural pathways that support musicality and dexterity than someone who hadn't spent her life practicing.'

kissing feels good

Sure, kissing feels good. But it's also an evolutionary advantage. Now a new book explains the science behind passionate lip-locks, and what they tell us about how men and women approach romantic relationships.

The precise origins of kissing are unknown. But some scientists hypothesize that the practice evolved from feeding rituals between animal mothers and their young, wherein mothers would chew and break down food before passing it directly to their offspring by mouth. Out of that gesture grew a universal sign of love and affection.

In the new book The Science of Kissing: What Our Lips Are Telling Us, author Sheril Kirshenbaum cites the work of Rutgers University anthropologist Helen Fisher, who says kissing evolved to fulfill three essential needs: sex drive, romantic love and attachment. Romantic kissing is a part of more than 90% of human cultures, and its role, as Kirshenbaum puts it, is to help us "find partners, commit to one person and keep couples together long enough to have a child." (More on Time.com: Why Women Are Attracted to Guys Who Play Hard to Get)

How? The cascade of biological reactions during a passionate kiss plays a role. Research shows that kissing boosts levels of neurotransmitters like dopamine (which is involved in craving and desire) and serotonin (which elevates mood and can help spark obsessive thoughts about a partner). It also causes a jump in oxytocin, the so-called "love hormone," whose release during orgasm triggers attachment between couples; high levels of it in new parenthood also foster lifelong attachment between mother and child.

"What I found so fascinating is that the chemicals in our bodies are responsible for the so-called symptoms we associate with falling in love," Kirshenbaum says. "I don't think it takes the romance out of the equation, but it gives us a better scientific understanding of how our bodies are behaving." 

Men also use kissing to weed out unsuitable mates — or, more often, to make themselves attractive to desirable ones. "Males tend to kiss as a means of gaining sexual favors, or as a means of affecting reconciliation," says Gallup. "Females kiss more as a mate-assessment device."

Indeed, in studies of smooching styles in men and women, Gallup found that men were more likely to initiate tongue contact, preferring French kissing to closed-mouth pecks. One theory behind that finding is that men have small amounts of testosterone in their saliva. "In saliva exchange — whether that's over weeks or months or even years — trace amounts of testosterone in male saliva could raise testosterone levels in the female and therefore increase her receptivity and her libido," Gallup says. "In long-term relationships, the frequency of kissing is a good barometer of the health and well-being of that particular bond." (More on Time.com: Does Men's 'Bond' with Porn Ruin Them for Real-Life Sex?)

In longer, committed relationships, Gallup found, women also continued to use kissing — to evaluate the state of their partnership. They were also far more likely than men to insist on kissing before, during and after sex.

Those differences are in line with what we know more generally about men and women when it comes to sex and intimacy. "Women put a lot of weight into the act of kissing itself," says Kirshenbaum. For them, it's "nature's ultimate litmus test"— a way to probe the potential of a future partner. And for men? Well, I think we all know what men want.